The main purpose of this paper is to present the basic biblical and non-biblical sources comprising the terms kuttōnet and ketōnet passîm, to discover their essential meaning and to find the most important differences between them if there are any.
kuttōnet
The word kuttōnet / kĕtōnet, appears in the Bible several times in the following places:
in the absolute state: Gen 37: 31 + 2 times; Exod 28: 39; 28: 40 (plur.) + 3 times; 39: 27 (plur.);
in the construct state: Gen 37: 3 +9 times; 3: 21 (plur.) +2 times; Ezra 2: 69 (plur.)
with suffixes: Gen 37: 23; 2 Sam 15: 32; Isa 22: 21; Job 30: 18; Cant 5: 3; Lev. 10: 5 (plur.) (BDB 509 [kuttōnet]).
The etymology of the word kuttōnet is probably connected with the Sumerian gida, the Accadian kitû - linen, kitinnû - cloth, katānu - a linen or woolen cloth (AHW 493b; 495b; KBL 481). In the Assyrian language the adjective qattanu and its derivations express the general idea of being thin, fine (BAD 13: 176). So then the garment called kuttōnet could implicitly combine the meanings of thin, fine linen or woolen material.
In Gen 3: 21 we read that God, after expelling Adam and Eve from the paradise took care about them ‘and made kotnôt out of skins for man and for his wife’ (cf. BDB 509). It was the first, very simple basic garment worn of course next to the body, about which we can read in the Bible. The word kuttōnet means here the garment both for man and for woman.
Surely more sophisticated was the tunic of the companion of king David (2 Sam 1: ) which he kept torn in his hand, or the tunic of Job (Job 30: 18). About this clothing we know nothing more, we can only suppose that these tunics were made out of linen or wool.
In Cant 5: 3 a young girl waiting in the bedroom for her bridegroom says that she has already taken off her kuttōnet and washed her feet. This text clearly suggests that she is now without any clothing, she is quite naked. That means, she worn the kuttōnet next to the body. As in Gen 3: 21 this word concerns the woman’s garment.
The large group of texts in which we can find the word kuttōnet describes the vestment of priests (e.g. Exod 40: 14; Ezra 2: 69; Neh 7: 69, 71), especially of Aaron and his sons. According to the Exod 29: 5, 8 the kuttōnet used by Aaron and his sons was the undergarment (also Lev 8: 7, 13), worn directly on the body. Because it belonged to the ‘sacred vestments’ (Exod 28: 4) of the priests whose task was to serve Yahweh in the Tabernacle (Exod 28: 40), this kind of tunic was made of pure, finely woven linen (Exod 28: 30; 37: 31; 39: 27). In Lev 16: 4 we read about holy white linen tunic for priests. In Exod 28: 4 one finds the expression ketōnet tašbēṣ, what is generally understood as embroidered tunic or checkered or plated work tunic (BDB 509 [kuttōnet]). The additional information gives us Exod 39: 1, according to which all the vestments of priest were made of gold, purple stuffs, violet-shade and red crimson stuffs and fine twinned linen. It proves that the priest’s kuttōnet was a special kind of undergarment worn only by narrow egalitarian group of people and made of the best and most precious - from the contemporaneous point of view - materials. However these texts don’t say anything about the shape of the tunic.
Concluding what was said until now, the most important features connected with the tunic are then following: generally it is a principal ordinary undergarment worn next to the person, it was used by both men and women, the material and work differ from very simple made of skin for Adam and Eve, through more complicated made of linen or wool, to the special kind of very precious tunics for priests using them during the cult.
The kuttōnet, as the forerunner of the Greek chiton and Roman tunic, appeared for the first time in the Bronze Age III, but in the Iron Age was already well known in the East, also among the Semites. Made of linen or wool, sometimes of fine byssus or cotton (Haag 961), was a loose-fitting undergarment sewn together on the sides (about the process of shaping of garment see: IDB I 653 [cloth]). According to the picturesque depictions there were different types of tunics, which reached to the knees or - later under the influence of Canaanite mode - to the ankles, with a long or short sleeve (Gerleman 1965: 166; cf. Gen 37: 3; Lev 16: 4; Cant 5: 3). They may have been draped over one shoulder, leaving the other shoulder bare, and reached to the point slightly below the knees (IDB I 869). The tunic was worn by both sexes next to the skin (2 Sam 13: 18, 19; 15: 32; Cant 5: 3; Brown 1980: 8-112). It was worn under the long outergarment. During work and in marching the tunic had to be drawn tightly around the waist by the belt, sash or girdle (Exod 12: 11; 2 Kgs 4: 29; Mt 5: 40; John 19: 23; 21: 7), that was ordinarily worn to keep the folds close (Calwer 739). A sword or purse might be tucked into this girdle (Judg 3: 16; 1 Sam 25: 13). A person clothed only with the tunic was described at times as naked (CBE 237; cf. Isa 20: 2, 3; 1 Sam 19: 24; John 21: 7). The other information about kuttōnet comes from the non-biblical sources.
In Egypt the antecedents of tunic reach back at least to the 19-cent. BC, as indicates the Egyptian tomb of Beni-Hasan, that depicts Semites contemporary with the patriarchs. The men wore decorated one-shoulder tunics that reached to just below the knees. Also women wore such garments ‘slung over the right shoulder and extending farther up around the neck than the men’s garment. They were longer than those worn by men and more varied in color’ (IDB I 871). Also Jehu, who prostates before Shalmaneser III, appears to wear a short-sleeved tunic extending to the ankles that is belted around the middle and has fringes or a large border along the bottom (the ‘Black Obelisk’ of Shalmaneser; ANEP, 120, panel II; Matthews 1988: 117-119; cf. Isa 22: 21). The Stele of Sennacherib shows several Judean leaders or defenders of Lachish wearing an unbelted tunic with sleeves as they plead for their lives before the king (ANEP, 129, 293-294; ABD II 233-234).
In the intertestamental and New Testament period the principal garb for men and women, described as chitōn in Greek or tunica in Latin, was still the same. According to some excavations made by Y. Yadin, the tunic consisted in that time of two equal size pieces of cloth sewn at the top and sides, leaving openings for the head and the arms (Yadin 1963: 66; cf. Josephus, Ant. 3: 161). Roman citizens and often those of some means had narrow bands running from the top to bottom of the tunic. New Testament tradition suggests that some tunics were long, belted and made with gold (Rev 1: 13). In the Johannine tradition Peter wears a tunic (ependytēs) common to the peasants of the day (John 21: 7). We can find some parallels in the depictions of the 1st cent. BC peasants (Hadas 1965: 148) who wears the tunic over one shoulder with the other bare. They used the short and sleeveless tunics in order that their length didn’t disturb them during the work (Lach 1962: 465).
kettōnet passîm
The expression ketōnet passîm appears in the Bible relatively seldom, mainly in the Joseph’s story (Gen. 37: 3, 23, 32) and in 2 Sam 13: 18, 19 (BDB 509 [kuttōnet]).
The term passîm has different interpretations. It may describe decorations sewn on precious garments, or rather garment which reaches to the ankles (H.P. Müller, ZA 66 (1977) 310), garment which reaches to the wrist and to the ankles (GB; König; Zorell; AuS 5: 215). The term appears as a Hebrew pas (Ezek 47: 3), Aramaic passa (Dan 5: 5, 24), Syriac pista (Lach 1962: 465), what means flat of hand or foot /palm, sole/ (HAL 3: 892). In the Bible is found only in the expression ketōnet passîm in Gen 37: 3, 23, 32; 2 Sam 13: 18, 19 (BDB 821 [pas]). It was generally understood as a garment put around the body in the form of spiral which gave the effect of ‘plaques’ (Phoenician pas means plaque, /GPL; BRL2 186b; cf. Albright, BA 36 (1973) 31f/).
The similar Akkadian expression kitū (or kutinnū) pišannu was used for describing ‘a ceremonial robe which could be draped about statues of goddesses, and had various gold ornaments sewed onto it’ (cf. JNES 8 (1949) 177). In the neo-Babylonian period the garment pišannu was reserved exclusively for the clothing of images. It was often made of linen but dyed wool was used for its decoration (JNES 8 /1949/ 179). Probably the word passîm would be an adaptation of Akkadian pišannu, ‘a technical term denoting appliqué ornaments on costly vests and bodices’ (Speiser 1964: 290).
In the Joseph story we read that Jacob gave his son the ketōnet passîm as a special gift, as a sign of his deep love to the son, who was born in his old age. Apparently Jacob loved Joseph more than his other sons. But it was the beginning of the conflict between the brothers and Joseph. They were eaten up with envy because of that special attitude of their father Jacob toward Joseph, so that they started even to hate him. The ketōnet passîm was one of the reasons of hatred and then of the attempt to kill their youngest brother. But the fault was also on the side of their father Jacob, who gave opportunity to the conflict. Westermann says that the garment ‘sets Joseph apart from his brothers; the consequence of predilection is preference. The predilection becomes public and so the father shares the blame for the conflict that it unlooses (1986: 37).
The term used in the story was translated in different ways, e.g. by the LXX as chitōn poikilōn, chitōn of many colors; (wrought, adorned in various colors /GEL 1430/), or chitōn karpōtos (2 Sam 13: 18), reaching to the wrist; by Vulgate as tunicam polymitam, t. consisting of many threads (GEL 1440), by Aquila as chitōn astragalōn, reaching to the ankle or wrist (GEL 262; PGL 248), by Symmachus as chitōn cheirodotōn, furnished with hands (GEL 1985; cf. Brown 1980: 8; ABD II 235). The proper translation which is actually the most accepted, is that of Aquila: the tunic reaching to the ankles, probably with the long sleeves (cf. Josephus, Ant. 7: 171). According to Bellinger, specialist of ancient clothing in the East, ‘it seems logical to assume that Jacob made Joseph a garment of leathers or wool felt, with a woven binding to keep it from tearing’ (IDB I 654). This kind of vestment exalts Joseph above his brothers. Obviously such a garment wasn’t used for everyday-work. It was something like the vestment of high social level person. This kind of tunic had then particular social significance (Westermann 1982: 27) and ‘marked the wearer as a favorite’ (IDB II 983).
The expression ketōnet passîm appears again in the biblical story about Tamar, king David’s daughter, violated by Amnon, her brother (2 Sam 13: 1-22). In the v. 18 we read that ‘she was wearing a ketōnet passîm for this was what the king’s unmarried daughters wore in days gone by’. In the next versus the author says that Tamar put out by her brother ‘tore the ketōnet passîm she was wearing’. These texts suggest quite clearly that in the time of United Monarchy the ketōnet passîm was a special kind of undergarment worn by the king’s unmarried daughters and maybe also by other social high standing persons of the king’s court. Surely it wasn’t garment for work but also it wasn’t a solemn vestment. This kind of tunic was designated for everyday use but of course it was more expensive and significant than in use by ‘normal’ people.
According to non-biblical sources the ketōnet passîm was under the old Babylonian or even the Hittites influence (Haag 961) created special fashion type of shirt worn both by men and women of higher levels of society. K. Galling claims that it was used as special kind of outergarment over the tight fitted linen shirt (Hbr. sādîn, Judg 14: 12, 13; cf. Mk 14: 51). Skinner asserts that the ketōnet passîm as ‘an unusual habiliment’, was ‘a shirt or tunic reaching to the extremities (passîm)’, i.e. the wrists and ankles, whereas the ordinary under garment was sleeveless and reached only to the knees (1930: 444). Egyptian depiction from the palace of Ramses III from the year about 1500 BC presents a noble Syrian worn in the ketōnet passîm (das Wickelkleid, Calwar 738). It was rather long striped piece of material with a colored changing design, which in the form of a spiral was put around the body in several coils from up to down, from the calves upward fitted tightly around the whole body. One end of the material was put as a kind of wrap or shawl on the shoulder, the second one, ingenious twisted or rolled, was fixed to the belt so that the garment around the belt had the form of a pad (Calwar 739). According to W.F. Albright it was special garment of the eunuch (Haag 961; JBL 37 /1926/ 116-226; 60 /1940/ 250, Anm. 19).
In Palestine the ketōnet passîm predominated about 1300 BC (Calwar 739-740).
Conclusions
Clothing provided very important social and cultural information concerning status, power, group identity, manufacture and trade. ‘For thousands of years it has been one of the most striking and powerful indications of social rank’ (Westermann 1986: 37). The significant role played by proper dress in ancient society was apparent also for the biblical writers. The frequent reference to dress or ornamentation indicates the social and symbolic importance of clothing for ancient Israelite society. The biblical authors used often dress metaphorically to make both ethical exhortations and to show the status and character of significant figures (ABD II 232).
The garment in the Hebrew scriptures is given a number of names which makes sometimes clear distinctions difficult. Outer garment in antiquity was generally draped around the body, and pinned, belted, buttoned or fastened (Bonfante and Jaunzems, 1988: 1386). The undergarment like kuttōnet was rather simple in its form although it also reflected the social position and richness of its owner.
Gathering all the features of those two kinds of garment we can say as a conclusion that according to the biblical and non-biblical sources the kuttōnet was:
ordinary undergarment for both men and women,
worn next to the person,
reaching to the knee or to the calves,
with sleeves or without them,
made of linen or wool,
without particular decoration,
used also during the work.
According to the same sources the ketōnet passîm was:
generally used as undergarment for both men and women worn next to the body, but because
made usually of fine linen or wool, and because
colored and with different changing design, it was
used also as an outer garment,
reaching to the ankles (special and basic feature),
with long sleeves,
rather expensive,
certainly non useful for work,
a sign of high position in family, tribe or society.
Abbreviations
ANEP Ancient Near East in Pictures Relating to the Old Testament, 2nd ed. with suppl., (ed.) J.B. Prichard, Princeton 1969
AHW Akkadisches Handwörterbuch, (hrsg.) W. von Soden, 3 Vol., Wiesbaden 1965-81
KBL L. Koehler et W. Baumgartner, Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, Leiden 1953
AuS Arbeit und Sitte in Palästina, (hrsg.) G. Dalman, 7 Vol., Gütersloh 1928-1942
BA Biblical Archaeologist
BAD The Assyrian Dictionary, (ed.) J.A. Brinkman et al., 21 Vol., Chicago 1982
BDB The New Brown-Driver-Briggs-Gesenius Hebrew and English Lexicon, (ed.) F. Brown, Peabody 1981
BK Biblischer Kommentar
BRL Biblisches Reallexicon, (hrsg.) K. Galling, Tübingen 1937
Calwer Calwer Bibellexicon, (hrsg.) Th. Schlatter, Calwer Verlag. Stuttgart 1967, 738-741 [Kleidung]
CBE Catholic Biblical Encyclopedia. Old Testament, (ed.) J.E. Steinmueller, K. Sullivan. Joseph F. Wagner Inc. Publishers. New York 1956, 237-238 [Clothing]
GB W. Gesenius - F. Buhl, Hebräisches und Aramäisches Handwörterbuch über das Alte Testament, Leipzig17 1915
GEL A Greek-English Lexicon, (ed.) H.S. Jones, Oxford 1953
GPL Grammar of the Phoenician Language, (ed.) Z.S. Harris, New Haven 1936
Haag Bibel-Lexicon, (hrsg.) H. Haag, Benzinger Verlag, Zürich-Köln 1968, 960-962 [Kleidung]
HAL Hebräsches und Aramäisches Lexicon zum Alten Testament, (hrsg.) W. Baumgartner, J.J. Stamm, 4. Vol., E.J. Brill: Leiden 1967-1990
IDB The Interpreter‘s Dictionary of The Bible. An Illustrated Encyclopedia, (ed.) G.A. Buttrick, 4 vols., Abingdon Press: New York – Nashville 1962
JBL Journal of Biblical Literature
JNES Journal of New Eastern Studies
JSS Journal of Semitic Studies, Manchester
König E. König, Hebräisches und Aramäisches Wörterbuch zum Alten Testament, Leipzig7 1936 (Wiesbaden 1969)
PGL A Patristic Greek Lexicon, (ed.) G.W.H. Lampe, Oxford 1978
ZA Zeitschrift für Assyriologie
Zorell F. Zorell, Lexicon hebraicum et aramaicum Veteris Testamenti, Roma 1954, 19622
Bibliography
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Brown, J.P., 1980 The Sacrificial Cult and Its Critique in Greek and Hebrew (II), JSS 25: 1-21
Edwards, D.R., Dress and Ornamentation, ADB II 232-238
Gerleman, G, 1965 Ruth. Das Hohelied (BK XVIII), Neukirchener Verlag
Hadas, M., 1965 Imperial Rome, New York
Hönig, H.W., 1957 Die Bekleidung des Hebräers. Eine Biblisch-archeologische Untersuchung, Zürich (Diss.)
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Oppenheim, L., 1949 The Golden Garments of the Gods, JNES 8, 172-193
Skinner, J., 1930 Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Genesis, Edinburgh
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